Summary: Throughout history, fire has been a devastating weapon, from the Byzantine Empire's secretive "Greek fire" to modern flamethrowers and incendiary weapons. The U.S. military has largely abandoned such weapons, but Russia has continued to develop and deploy them. The TOS-1A Solntsepek, a thermobaric rocket launcher mounted on a T-72 tank chassis, exemplifies this trend. Designed to incinerate targets with a massive, high-temperature explosion, the TOS-1A has seen use in Ukraine, where its destructive power has been highlighted.

-Despite their effectiveness, thermobaric weapons are controversial due to their indiscriminate nature and potential for civilian casualties. The latest version, the TOS-2 Tosochka, is currently undergoing trials, further advancing Russia's incendiary capabilities.

The Resurgence of Fire Weapons: Russia's TOS-1A in Modern Warfare

During the Middle Ages, the Byzantine Empire developed its infamous "Greek fire" – a weapon that was so devastating that its military kept it largely a secret. Even today it remains somewhat of a mystery of how it was made or who "invented it." Yet, it is known that it harnessed the power of fire and literally burned a trail of destruction in its path, while it was nearly impossible to extinguish.

In addition to burning the enemy alive, Greek fire was also used for psychological warfare, as the sight and sound of the weapon alone were intimidating and disheartening to enemy soldiers. It was arguably one of the first "terror weapons" to see widespread use.

Though fire as a weapon largely diminished over time, it was revived during the First World War with the advent of the man-portable flamethrower. The ability to shoot fire at an enemy proved highly effective, so much so that the United States military even developed specialized flamethrowing tanks!

However, even before the end of the Cold War, many nations including the United States ceased using such horrific weapons. Yet, Moscow had essentially gone in another direction and it has since doubled down with its efforts to utilize fire on the modern battlefield. Rather than the backpack-and-nozzle systems that were employed with infantry throughout both World Wars, Russia developed its TOS-1A Solntsepek ('Scorching Sun'), a multiple rocket launcher platform mounted on a T-72 tank chassis to launch thermobaric rockets.

In this way, it is more about launching weapons that start a fire than shooting flames!

TOS-1A: Scorching Sun Weapon Indeed

The TOS-1A was an updated version of the TOS-1 'Burantino,' a heavily armored rocket launcher that could launch incendiary and thermobaric rockets – and meant to kill or rush any "soft target" in its path.  It was essentially a 220 mm 24-barrel multiple rocket launcher that was mounted on the chassis of a T-72/T-90 main battle tank.

The system's first combat tests took place in 1988 and 1989 in the Panjshir Valley during the Soviet–Afghan War. Much like the Byzantine Empire's Greek Fire, the Solntsepek proved to be a terror weapon that caused panic. It has been employed in the ongoing war in Ukraine, where Russian airborne troops have been equipped with the TOS-1A.

"You are being given a formidable weapon, which has no equal in the arsenals of the collective West," one Russian colonel said in the statement posted by the defense ministry, Newsweek reported.

According to Russian state media and defense exporter Rosoboronexport, the TOS-1A has a maximum range of 5.6 miles and can be combat-ready within a minute and a half.

Improved Model, The TOS-2

The latest TOS-2 'Tosochka' heavy flamethrowers are currently undergoing trial tests, the Russian military announced last Friday according to Tass.

"Heavy flamethrower TOS-2 is one of the newest weapons with the RCBD [Radiological, Chemical and Biological Defense] troops," Chief of Russia's Chemical, Biological, and Radiation Protection Forces Lieutenant-General Igor Kirillov said in an interview with the Russian Defense Ministry's Krasnaya Zvezda newspaper. "The pilot batch of the weapons at the issue was delivered to the military this year and it is currently under a trial test."

Thermobaric – a Truly Barbaric Weapon

When deployed, thermobaric ordnance is a devastating weapon as it employs oxygen from the surrounding air to generate a high-temperature explosion. Also known as aerosol or vacuum bombs, these can create a  massive shockwave followed by a fire cloud where the temperature can reach 2500-3000 degrees Celsius (4500-5450 Fahrenheit). In addition to certainly killing anyone within the blast radius, the heat from the weapon can cause significant damage to structures and vehicles –igniting any fuels and lubricants, as well as setting off any ordnance. Many targets are essentially vaporized.

Anyone who survives the blast can't be described as the "lucky one," as they often have severe injuries to the lungs, eyes, ears, and colon.

The weapons are not unlawful or prohibited by the Geneva Convention, but their use on civilian targets would violate the law of armed conflict (LOAC). Thermobaric weapons are "likely to cause civilian casualties due to their indiscriminate and uncontained nature," the Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation has warned.

The first reported deployment of thermobaric weapons in Ukraine occurred in the early stages of the ongoing Ukraine war when 70 Ukrainian fighters were killed in the northeastern town of Okhtyrka. Russian doctrine appeared to be that the best way to attack people in buildings in urban combat was to ensure that people inside could never make it out – or would be wounded so badly they were not capable of continuing to fight.

The Russian military is not alone in using such insidious weapons.

The United States had employed thermobaric weapons in Vietnam, but those tended to be air-dropped over enemy positions. During the War in Afghanistan, the U.S. military employed such weapons against the cave complexes in which Al-Qaeda and Taliban fighters had taken refuge in the Gardez region.

Ukraine's Revenge

In late October of 2023, a video circulated online that showed a Ukrainian drone strike a Russian TOS-1A. Soon after the first-person view (FPV) drone hit the Russian vehicle, it set off a secondary explosion that produced a massive fireball. The TOS-1A appeared to have been destroyed by its own ordnance, and its crew was left burning – not in hell, but quite literally within the TOS-1A.

Author Experience and Expertise

Peter Suciu is a Michigan-based writer. He has contributed to more than four dozen magazines, newspapers, and websites with over 3,200 published pieces over a twenty-year career in journalism. He regularly writes about military hardware, firearms history, cybersecurity, politics, and international affairs. Peter is also a Contributing Writer for Forbes and Clearance Jobs. You can follow him on Twitter: @PeterSuciu.

All images are Creative Commons.