The 2023 World Drug Report highlights the growing concern over the trafficking of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) across the Middle East, noting the expanding market for Captagon®, the trademark name of the prescription drug originally manufactured by the German company Degussa Pharma Gruppe. 

Over the past decade, Syria has emerged as the largest producer and exporter of illicit Captagon. Extensive evidence directly implicates the Syrian regime in the trade of this drug. It also underscores the nexus between drug trafficking, regional instability, and the involvement of armed groups with cross-border affiliations.

The burgeoning Captagon trade presents a significant threat to the Middle East, impacting health and providing substantial financial resources to extremist groups. Furthermore, there is a risk that Captagon could be supplanted by more destructive drugs, similar to the emergence of methamphetamine, as happened nearly a decade ago in Southeast Asia.

While expecting cooperation from the Assad regime to address the Captagon threat may be unrealistic, there is increasing momentum in Washington and European capitals to allocate greater attention and resources toward mobilizing the international community and assisting Syria’s neighbors in tackling it.

The Captagon Threat

Captagon, an addictive stimulant, has gained popularity among affluent partygoers in the Gulf as a recreational drug, combatants for its perceived invigorating effects, and workers who require sustained energy for multiple jobs. However, heavy use poses risks such as impaired cognitive function and cardiovascular defects, and it can lead to addiction. A significant concern is that illicitly produced pills often contain high amounts of fenethylline. The composition of modern Captagon varies widely, and the lack of oversight increases the likelihood of these pills containing harmful and toxic chemicals.

The global Captagon business is estimated to be worth anywhere from $5.7 billion annually, based on large-scale seizures alone, to more than $50 billion, according to 2021 data. “Captagon trafficking remains a serious problem with significant impacts on the region and across the world,” Deputy State Department spokesperson Vedant Patel asserted, highlighting how the trade “fuels corruption and undermines economic prosperity.”

Syria, the Production Hub

According to United Kingdom government data, Syria is estimated to be the source of approximately 80 percent of the world’s Captagon supply, a surge in production that traces back to the country’s 2011 uprisings. 

With the onset of the Syrian Civil War, the production of Captagon moved there from Turkey and Lebanon. The country’s large chemical industry and sizable cohort of unemployed chemists centered in Aleppo and Homs made it ripe for manufacturing illicit drugs. 

Following Hezbollah’s entry into the conflict on Assad’s side in 2013, Captagon production facilities shifted to regime strongholds along the Alawite Coast and in the Qalamoun Mountains. The Captagon trade in the region is currently dominated by members of the Syrian security apparatus, the Assad clan, and Lebanese Hezbollah. It also includes Iran-backed militias, which, along with drug dealers and elements of Syrian government forces, operate in the southern governorates of Daraa and Suwayda to transport drugs to the Jordanian border. The intricate dynamics of Syria’s illicit drug industry, centered around Captagon manufacturing and smuggling, encompass competition and collusion among intelligence agencies, militia groups, and the narcotics entrepreneurs and smugglers who align with them.

Prime Destinations Along the Drug Trail

Syria’s strategic location along historical smuggling routes to Europe and key Gulf markets like Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) intensifies the challenges of drug trafficking. 

The region has been inundated with Captagon, which is cheaper and more accessible than alcohol. Jordan’s extensive border with Syria has made it particularly vulnerable to the influx of Captagon from its war-torn neighbor, resulting in a surge in consumption across all levels of Jordanian society. In a pivotal decision in September 2021, Jordan opted to reopen the Nasib Border Crossing in an effort to normalize relations with the Assad regime. Despite this measure, the subsequent readmission of Syria to the Arab League, and the fact that Damascus reportedly agreed to “take the necessary steps to end smuggling on the borders,” Captagon trafficking has continued unabated. 

Here, it is important to emphasize that the surge in Captagon shipments to Jordan is part of a broader regional narcotics challenge. Jordan is both a destination and transit route to the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula. The majority of the drug’s supplies are reportedly destined for Saudi Arabia, where much of global consumption occurs. 

Moreover, the network involved in Captagon trafficking is intricate, involving a variety of individuals and groups, and utilizes multiple corridors and entry points for regional distribution. Syrian-produced Captagon is smuggled into Arab Gulf countries by Iran-linked militias, Lebanese traffickers, and Turkish networks. The chaotic situation is exacerbated by large refugee populations, facilitating trafficking through the movement of loosely documented individuals. 

One notable route for Captagon trafficking is through the Haditha Dry Port. Another route entails smuggling drug consignments through the port town of Duba on the Red Sea. In August 2022, Saudi authorities seized a shipment of flour passing through a third entry point, Riyadh Dry Port, which is a key logistics hub for the country’s capital and surrounding areas. 

A recent report from the European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) indicates that Europe could increasingly serve as a transshipment hub for Captagon destined for the Middle East. In December 2023, German authorities seized $64.5 million worth of Captagon pills following a more than year-long investigation into the activities of a Syria-linked gang. The drugs were intended for Bahrain and Saudi Arabia, highlighting the international scope and sophistication of Captagon trafficking networks.

Countering Captagon

The Assad regime is not only indifferent to narcotics trafficking but thrives off it. With the collapse of traditional economic activities, illicit drug manufacturing became a lifeline for the regime, evolving into an increasingly lucrative business sector that provides the means to enlist, protect, and reward loyalists. A report from the Syrian Observatory of Political and Economic Networks indicated that between 2019 and 2022, the Assad regime and its network of allies directly accrued around $7.3 billion from Captagon revenues alone. 

At the regional level, the response to the Captagon trade has been largely reactive, fragmented, and narrowly focused on specific problems such as controlling precursors or intercepting shipments at border crossings rather than addressing broader supply-and-demand dynamics. Jordan’s significant role in combating the illegal Captagon trade is unsurprising, given the volume of drugs flooding into the country. 

In February 2022, King Abdullah II officially declared a “war on drug trafficking.” From 2020 to 2023, the Jordanian army thwarted over 1,700 smuggling and infiltration attempts, which ranged from gangs crossing the border on foot to trucks laden with furniture and agricultural goods used as cover for smuggling pills. On September 5, 2023, the Jordanian military intercepted a drone transporting crystal meth from Syria, underscoring the ongoing narcotics smuggling along the northern border. In June 2024, Jordan’s Public Security Department announced the disruption of two smuggling operations at the Omari border crossing near Saudi Arabia.

The Jordanian army has reportedly adopted a “shoot-to-kill” policy against drug smugglers along its Syrian border. This aggressive stance towards Captagon trafficking is underscored by recent events, such as the pre-dawn airstrikes on drug production facilities in Daraa and Sweida provinces conducted in May 2023.

Responding to the escalating “major problem” of drug trafficking, Jordanian foreign minister Ayman Safadi reached out to his Iranian counterpart in an effort to tackle the smuggling crisis, highlighting Jordan’s critical situation. In July 2023, army and security chiefs from Jordan and Syria convened to address the drug threat. Yet, there is no evidence that these talks produced tangible outcomes. In fact, despite Jordan’s interdiction operations and diplomatic efforts, the drugs have become more accessible and affordable than ever. Amid the ongoing conflict in Gaza, King Abdullah has sought U.S. assistance to combat Iran-backed militias from Iraq and Syria engaged in an escalating drug conflict along Jordan’s border.

In other parts of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula, interdiction efforts have intensified. Authorities in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq (KRI), and in Iraq more broadly, regularly seize large quantities of the drug. Saudi authorities have increased raids at key border crossings in recent years, resulting in high-profile, widely publicized seizures, especially at the Haditha border crossing. Last June, a joint operation between Saudi Arabia and Oman led to the seizure of 6 million Captagon pills destined for land and seaports across the region. In September 2023, the Dubai Police seized approximately 86 million Captagon pills, valued at more than $1 billion, destined for the UAE. According to the UN Organization on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Saudi Arabia reported the largest quantities of Captagon seizures, accounting for 67 percent of the total.

At the international level, recognizing the potential region-wide destabilizing effects of the expanding illicit drug trade, the United States and European partners have stepped up their efforts with greater urgency. Last June, Secretary of State Antony Blinken announced the formation of a Global Coalition to Address Synthetic Drug Threats, which aims, among other things, to restrict the trade in Captagon.